竞争

competition noun

¹ event in which people try to win sth

ADJ. international, national | knock-out | dancing, piano, sporting, etc.

VERB + COMPETITION win She won an international dancing competition. | lose | have, hold, stage We're going to have a competition to see who can swim the furthest. | enter, take part in | withdraw from

COMPETITION + VERB take place | be open to sb The competition is open to all readers of the magazine

PREP. in a/the ~ I won the car in a competition. | ~ between a competition between the best teams in the country | ~ for a competition for the best chef

² trying to achieve the same thing/gain an advantage

ADJ. cut-throat, fierce, intense, keen, serious, severe, stiff, strong, tough intense competition for the contract | direct Public transport is run in direct competition with the private sector. | fair, free, healthy, open | domestic | foreign, global, international, overseas | economic

VERB + COMPETITION be up against, face | go into to go into competition with British Telecom | beat off, fight off to fight off competition from foreign firms

PREP. against ~ They won the order against fierce international competition. | in ~ with We are in competition with some very large companies. | in the face of ~ The gas companies are having to lay off staff in the face of stiff competition from oil. | ~ among/between There is a lot of competition between rival airlines. | ~ for, ~ from We face strong competition from other countries.

合作

cooperation noun

ADJ. close | full | greater, increased | active | effective | international, local | mutual a society founded on mutual cooperation and shared prosperity | cultural, economic, military, political, social, technical

VERB + COOPERATION need, require | ask for, call for, demand, seek She called for closer cooperation on drugs control. They are seeking the cooperation of senior medical staff. | enlist, get We are hoping to enlist the cooperation of women's groups. | give (sb), offer (sb) | encourage, promote promoting cooperation between universities and industry | ensure

PREP. in ~ with The film was made in cooperation with the Sports Council. | with/without sb's ~ With the cooperation of the public, the police may be able to catch this man. | ~ among increased technical cooperation among large companies | ~ between political cooperation between the two groups | ~ from You will need a bit of cooperation from your family. | ~ in We asked for their cooperation in the collection of data. | ~ on They offered their cooperation on the project. | ~ with We should like to thank you for your cooperation with us.

PHRASES a lack of cooperation, a need for cooperation There is a need for greater economic cooperation.

团队合作

teamwork noun

ADJ. effective, good

VERB + TEAMWORK emphasize, encourage The company says the aim is to encourage teamwork.

PREP. through ~ achieving our success through effective teamwork

历史

history noun

¹ the past, especially as a subject of study

ADJ. contemporary, early, recent the early history of the trade union movement things that happened in recent history | ancient, medieval, modern | local | family | British, world, etc. | official the official history of the Labour Party | recorded The debate about the origins of the universe has been going on throughout recorded history. | oral Oral history enables us to take account of those many aspects of history that are not recorded in documents. | art, church, cultural, economic, human, literary, military, political, social, etc.

QUANT. piece She created a piece of history by winning her fourth title.

VERB + HISTORY be steeped in a building that is steeped in history | go down in, make, pass into He will go down in history as a wise adviser and a kind man. He made history by being the first man to walk on the moon. | trace The regiment traces its history back to 1803. | distort, rewrite her attempt to rewrite history with herself in the role of heroine

HISTORY + VERB go back (to) … The town's history goes back to Roman times. | reveal sth, show sth History shows that New Zealand are almost unbeatable by British teams on their own turf. | repeat itself Years later, family history repeated itself with Eve's daughters.

HISTORY + NOUN book (figurative) She has earned her place in the history books.

PREP. during sth's ~ The country has suffered several invasions during its history. | in (sth's) ~ the most extraordinary royal meeting in history the best player in the sport's history | throughout ~ There have been conflicts such as this throughout history.

PHRASES change the course of history events that could change the course of history | a period of history This is a fascinating period of history. | the rest is history (= the rest of the story does not need to be told because it is well-known), a sense of history a people with no sense of history | a slice of history The team grabbed a slice of history here today (= achieved sth that will be remembered). > Note at SUBJECT(for more verbs and nouns)

² facts about sb/sth's life/existence in the past

ADJ. chequered, colourful, fascinating, interesting, rich The city has a rich and colourful history. | long She has a long history of mental illness. | previous, subsequent | case She familiarized herself with the case history of her new patient. | employment, family, life, medical, personal, sexual The doctor will need some details of your medical history. I know nothing about his personal history.

VERB + HISTORY have

PREP. ~ of a history of heart disease in the family

³ sth in the past that is no longer important

ADJ. past They had an affair once, but that's past history now.

当代

contemporary adj.

¹ belonging to the same time as sb/sth else

VERBS be

ADV. strictly She used only strictly contemporary documents to research the book. | almost, nearly | broadly, roughly a period broadly contemporary with the Shang dynasty

PREP. with a composer contemporary with Beethoven

² modern

VERBS be

ADV. very His work is very contemporary.

传统

tradition noun

ADJ. age-old, ancient, archaic, centuries-old, deep-rooted, enduring, living, long/long-established, old, time-honoured, unbroken, well-established | distinguished, fine, great, honourable | cherished, hallowed | dominant, powerful, strong | ancestral, family | local, national, native | folk, popular | oral | Catholic, Christian, pagan, etc. | Eastern, English, European, etc. | 19th-century, classical, medieval, modernist, etc. | academic, artistic, cultural, ideological, literary, military, musical, philosophical, political, religious, sociological, sporting, teaching, theatrical This region has a great sporting tradition. | democratic, liberal, radical, revolutionary

VERB + TRADITION have | cherish, continue, follow (in), keep alive, maintain, preserve, uphold Following in the Hitchcock tradition, he always appears in the films he directs. Villagers get together every year to keep this age-old tradition alive. | hand down an oral tradition handed down from generation to generation | break (with), go against He broke with the family tradition and did not go down the mines. | establish, start | revive

TRADITION + VERB continue, die hard, survive Old habits and traditions die hard.

PREP. according to (a/the) ~ According to tradition, a tree grew on the spot where the king was killed. | by ~ By tradition, nobody interrupts an MP's maiden speech. | in (a/the) ~ In time-honoured tradition, a bottle of champagne was smashed on the ship. He's a politician in the tradition of (= similar in style to) Kennedy.

PHRASES a departure from tradition In a departure from tradition, the bride wore a red dress. | in the best traditions of sth The building was constructed in the best traditions of medieval church architecture. | respect for tradition I acquired lasting respect for tradition and veneration for the past.

习俗

custom noun

ADJ. accepted, age-old, ancient, established, old, traditional | quaint | local | social

VERB + CUSTOM follow, observe, respect They still follow the custom of pinning money to the bride's dress. | maintain, preserve, revive

CUSTOM + VERB die out, disappear The custom died out in the nineteenth century. | prevail, survive These customs still prevail in remote areas.

PREP. according to a/the ~, in accordance with (a/the) ~ They poured wine round the trees in accordance with local custom. | through ~ The rules have grown up through custom and are not laid down by law. | ~ of

PHRASES as is/was the custom People threw coins onto the stage, as was the custom.

loyalty noun

ADJ. absolute, complete, total, undivided, unswerving He showed unswerving loyalty to his friends. | fierce, great, intense, strong, tremendous | conflicting, divided Rows with one's in-laws often create divided loyalties. | primary, prime His prime loyalty was to his family. | family, filial, group, personal, tribal | local, national, regional | religious | party, political | brand, customer

VERB + LOYALTY command, inspire, win He inspires great loyalty from all his employees. | feel, have | display, express, prove, show | pledge, swear They pledged their loyalty to the king. | transfer Some party members found it hard to transfer their loyalty to the new leader. | expect

LOYALTY + VERB be, lie, remain His loyalties lay with people from the same background as himself.

LOYALTY + NOUN oath

PREP. out of ~ She stayed on at the school out of loyalty to her students. | ~ among The village is the object of fierce loyalty among its inhabitants. | ~ for Mass advertising creates brand loyalty for a product. | ~ from The company expects loyalty from its employees. | ~ to men whose loyalty is to their political careers | ~ towards The team members felt tremendous loyalty towards one another.

PHRASES a conflict of loyalties, an oath/a pledge of loyalty, a sense of loyalty

伦理学

ethics noun

ADJ. personal She resigned over an issue of personal ethics. | Christian | business, medical, professional The study was approved by the medical ethics committee.

PHRASES a code of ethics There should be a code of business ethics which indicates how clients are to be served. | a matter/question of ethics. It's the committee's job to decide on matters of ethics.

科学的

scientific adj.

VERBS be, look, seem

ADV. highly It all looks highly scientific! | truly | purely Her curiosity was purely scientific. | not very His approach was not very scientific.

发现

discovery noun

ADJ. amazing, big, exciting, great, important, major, remarkable, significant, startling, surprising, unexpected potentially the biggest archaeological discovery in Norway for fifty years | awful, chilling, grim, terrible the awful discovery that he had been deceiving her | latest, new, recent | accidental, chance All these were chance discoveries made by scientists engaged in other investigations. | archaeological, medical, scientific | personal The story tells of a man's journey of personal discovery up an African river.

VERB + DISCOVERY make New scientific discoveries are being made all the time. | lead to Their work led to some important medical discoveries. | await There may be many unexpected treasures awaiting discovery.

PREP. ~ by a discovery by a French scientist | ~ of the discovery of oil in the North Sea

PHRASES a process of discovery, a journey/voyage of discovery (figurative) To tour Sri Lanka is to take a voyage of discovery through a land of endless variety.

艺术

art noun

¹ paintings, drawings, etc.

ADJ. great, high | abstract, avant-garde, commercial, conceptual, figurative, fine, graphic, performance, pop/popular, sacred, visual | contemporary, modern

VERB + ART create, produce one of the greatest works of art ever produced

ART + NOUN gallery | collector, critic, dealer, historian, lover | treasure, work (also artwork) | college, school | form Cinema became accepted as an art form. | history | market | world Many people from the art world attended the painter's funeral.

² the arts: art, music, theatre, literature, etc.

ADJ. creative, decorative, dramatic, performing, plastic, visual

PHRASES arts and crafts an exhibition of Peruvian arts and crafts | funding for the arts, a patron of the arts, sponsorship of the arts 3 arts not sciences

ART + NOUN subject | degree

PHRASES arts and sciences

⁴ ability/skill

VERB + ART master, perfect I've never mastered the art of making bread.

PREP. ~ of Television has ruined the art of conversation.

PHRASES get sth down to a fine art (= learn to do it very well) She's got the business of buying Christmas presents down to a fine art. > Note at ART

原创性

originality noun

ADJ. great, startling, striking

VERB + ORIGINALITY have | display, show | be lacking in, lack

ORIGINALITY + VERB lie in sth His originality as a painter lies in his representation of light.

PREP. ~ in The government has shown great originality in its foreign policy.

PHRASES a spark of originality

创造性

creativity noun

ADJ. great | artistic, musical

VERB + CREATIVITY develop, encourage, stimulate A good teacher can encourage artistic creativity. | inhibit, stifle This rigid approach stifles creativity.

PREP. ~ in This exercise encourages creativity in the use of language.

PHRASES scope for creativity My job does not give me much scope for creativity.

革新

innovation noun

¹ introduction of new ideas

ADJ. constant, continuous | successful | cultural, educational, industrial, scientific, technical, technological | design, policy, product industries where constant product innovation is a criterion for survival

VERB + INNOVATION encourage, facilitate, foster, stimulate | stifle Too strict a regulatory system will stifle innovation.

INNOVATION + VERB occur Technical innovation may occur directly in the factory.

INNOVATION + NOUN process

PREP. ~ in innovation in engineering

PHRASES scope for innovation

² new idea

ADJ. great, major, important, significant | successful | welcome | interesting | latest, new | recent | scientific, technical, technological

VERB + INNOVATION come up with She believed she had come up with one of the greatest innovations of modern times. | introduce Many innovations were introduced by the 1919 Act. | design, develop technological innovations designed to save energy

INNOVATION + VERB occur

PREP. ~ by Mathematical astronomy was the great innovation by the Greeks of the 5th century BC. | ~ in innovations in machinery and instruments

保守的

conservative adj.

VERBS be | become | remain

ADV. deeply, extremely, highly, profoundly, very | increasingly | largely, predominantly | fairly, rather, relatively | basically, essentially She takes a basically conservative view of society. | generally | innately, instinctively, naturally the army's innately conservative values | notoriously Banks are notoriously conservative about their dealings with clients. | traditionally a traditionally conservative profession | culturally, morally, politically, socially the culturally conservative world of commerce and industry

 

conservative noun

ADJ. diehard, dyed-in-the-wool, hardline, staunch | right-wing | back-bench disagreement among back-bench Conservatives | senior Senior Conservatives are opposed to the change. | political

文化

culture noun

¹ customs/ideas/beliefs

ADJ. ancient | primitive | dominant | alien, foreign | indigenous, native | local, national | traditional | African, black, Greek, Western, world, etc. These ideas have always been central to Western culture. | rural, urban | mainstream | underground | wider Prisoners are isolated from the wider culture of society at large. | bourgeois, working-class, etc. | street, youth As young people started to have more money, a significant youth culture developed. | dance, drug, football, etc. | academic, business, company, corporate, intellectual, legal, political, professional, religious, scientific, etc. the political culture of the United States | capitalist, computer, consumer, enterprise, materialistic, etc. the development of the enterprise culture in Britain

VERB + CULTURE assimilate (sb into) The Romans gradually assimilated the culture of the people they had conquered. Newcomers to the company are soon assimilated into the culture. | create, develop, foster, produce The new director is trying to foster a culture of open communication within the company.

CULTURE + VERB develop

CULTURE + NOUN group a country containing many language and culture groups | shock She experienced great culture shock when she first came to Europe.

PREP. in a/the ~ In some cultures children have an important place. | ~ of The social security system has been accused of producing a culture of dependency.

² art/literature/music, etc

ADJ. contemporary, modern | mass, pop, popular | folk | high | wide | literary, oral Jokes are an important part of our popular, oral culture.

PREP. a man/woman of culture She is a woman of wide culture.

认同，同一性

identity noun

ADJ. true | assumed, false He was discovered living under an assumed identity in South America. | mistaken This is obviously a case of mistaken identity. | new | common, corporate, cultural, national, personal, political, racial, sexual

VERB + IDENTITY create, develop, establish, forge They are still struggling to establish their identity as a political party. The company forged its own identity by producing specialist vehicles. | give sb/sth He felt that having a job gave him an identity. | maintain, preserve Many minority groups are struggling to maintain their cultural identity. | lose | change He changed his identity and moved abroad on his release from prison. | assume She was given a false passport and assumed a new identity. | disclose, reveal He refused to reveal the identity of his client. | discover, find out | guess It was easy to guess the identity of the thief. | conceal, hide, keep secret, protect Her voice was disguised to conceal her identity.

IDENTITY + NOUN bracelet, tag | card, documents, papers | code | parade The victim picked out her attacker in an identity parade. | crisis The country suffered from an identity crisis for years after the civil war.

PREP. ~ as Scotland has never lost its identity as a separate nation.

PHRASES proof of identity The police officer asked him for proof of identity. | a search for identity His search for his cultural identity took him to where his parents were born. | a sense of identity

成功

success noun

¹ good results

ADJ. considerable, conspicuous, enormous, great, notable, overwhelming, phenomenal, remarkable, spectacular, tremendous, unprecedented | limited, moderate, modest The campaign to stop drink-driving had only limited success. | popular, public | early, initial | immediate | long-term, short-term | business, commercial, economic, financial | academic, educational, electoral, literary, military, etc. | international The company's excellent marketing has resulted in enormous international success.

QUANT. amount, degree Initially, the venture enjoyed a fair amount of success.

VERB + SUCCESS achieve, enjoy, have, notch up She had little success in getting new customers. He is keen to notch up yet another success. | bring A change of management failed to bring success. | end in, lead to, result in The year-long fight for a pay rise ended in success. | ensure, guarantee We can't guarantee immediate success. | be vital to Your contribution was vital to the success of the concert.

SUCCESS + VERB come Success didn't come overnight? She struggled for years before making any money. | lie (in sth) Much of his success lies in his skill in handling staff. | depend on sth The success or failure of the project depends on how committed the managers are.

SUCCESS + NOUN rate The operation has a success rate of over 80%. | story The company has been one of the success stories of the past decade.

PREP. without ~ She tried to persuade them without success. | ~ in I've had some success in getting rid of the weeds. | ~ with the secret of his success with women

PHRASES a chance/hope of success What are our chances of success? We're trying to get him to sponsor us, but there's not much hope of success. | confident of success She had worked hard and was confident of success. | the key to success, a lack of success, the secret of (sb's) success, a symbol of (sb's) success

² sth that achieves its aim

ADJ. big, complete, considerable, conspicuous, enormous, great, huge, major, notable, outstanding, phenomenal, popular, real, remarkable, resounding, roaring, runaway, spectacular, total, tremendous, unprecedented, unqualified The band's new album has been a runaway success. | modest, qualified | business, commercial, economic, popular The book proved a major commercial success. | international | immediate

VERB + SUCCESS be, prove | have We had one or two outstanding successes. | judge sth The event was judged a success by its organizers. | make She's made a real success of that job.

PHRASES wish sb (every) success We are sad to see Hiroko go, and wish her every success in the future.

平衡

balance noun

¹ even combination/distribution

ADJ. correct, equal, even, exact, ideal, necessary, optimum, perfect, proper, right With children, it is important to achieve the right balance between love and discipline. | comfortable, equitable, excellent, good, happy, harmonious, healthy a healthy balance of foods | acceptable, adequate, appropriate, fair, reasonable, sensible How do you find an acceptable balance between closeness and distance in a relationship? | careful, delicate, fine, subtle Being a good boss requires a fine balance between kindness and authority. | fragile, precarious, uneasy | overall It is the overall balance of the diet that is important. | ecological, natural Pulling up all the plants will disturb the natural balance of the pond. | hormonal, nutritional | ethnic, gender, social There is an even gender balance amongst staff and students (= equal numbers of men and women).

VERB + BALANCE require | seek | achieve, create, find, strike We need to strike a balance between these conflicting interests. | keep, maintain, sustain You have to maintain a balance in your life or else you'll go crazy. | disturb, upset Tourists often disturb the delicate balance of nature on the island. | redress, restore | affect | alter, change, shift

BALANCE + VERB change, shift

PREP. on ~ (= after considering all the information) On balance, the company has had a successful year. | in ~ It is important to keep the different aspects of your life in balance. | ~ between the balance between academic and practical work | ~ of the balance of animals and plants in the environment

PHRASES the balance of nature

² division of power/influence

ADJ. changing, shifting | military, political

VERB + BALANCE hold to hold the balance of power (= to be in a position where your support would be just enough to give overall power to one group or another) | affect | change, shift | swing, tilt, tip (= to influence a result/decision) In an interview, smart presentation can tip the balance in your favour.

BALANCE + VERB change, shift

PHRASES the balance of advantage The balance of advantage has shifted from the unions to employers. | the balance of forces/power the changing balance of power between the working and middle class | checks and balances Democracy depends on a system of checks and balances.

³ of the body

ADJ. excellent, good | poor

VERB + BALANCE have Gymnasts have excellent balance. | affect Tightness in one set of muscles will affect your whole balance. | keep I struggled to keep my balance on my new skates. | lose She lost her balance and fell. | recover, regain | knock sb off, throw sb off The sudden movement threw him off balance.

PREP. off ~

PHRASES a sense of balance Cats have a very good sense of balance.

⁴ money

ADJ. account, bank | cash, money | credit, favourable, healthy, positive | debit, negative | cleared, net Interest is calculated on the daily cleared balance and paid direct to your account. | opening | final, outstanding | trade

VERB + BALANCE have Everyone likes to have a healthy bank balance. | ask for, request He asked the cashier for the balance of his current account. | check I'll need to check my bank balance before I spend so much money. | show | achieve | be due The final balance is due six weeks before departure. | pay I'll pay the balance later. | use The balance of the proceeds will be used for new equipment. | bring forward, carry forward the balance brought forward from the previous year

BALANCE + NOUN sheet the company's balance sheet

PHRASES the balance of payments (= the difference between the amount of money coming into and going out of a country), the balance of trade (= the difference in value between imports and exports)

balance verb

¹ keep steady

ADV. carefully, precariously

PREP. on He balanced the glasses carefully on the tray.

² compare two things; give them equal value

VERB + BALANCE have to, need to | seek to, try to The plan seeks to balance two important objectives. | manage to

PREP. against We have to balance the risks of the new strategy against the possible benefits. | with She tries to balance the needs of her children with those of her employer.

进展

advance noun

¹ forward movement

ADJ. rapid | Allied, British, German, etc.

VERB + ADVANCE make The regiment made an advance on the enemy lines. | order The general ordered an advance to the front line. | halt, resist, stop

PREP. on ~ the advance on Leningrad | to ~, towards ~ the Russian advance towards Berlin

² development

ADJ. big, considerable, dramatic, enormous, great, spectacular, substantial, tremendous | important, major, notable, remarkable, significant | rapid, steady rapid advances in science and technology | recent | economic, educational, medical, political, scientific, social, technical, technological | theoretical

VERB + ADVANCE make We need more money if we are to make any further advances in this area of science.

PREP. in ~ two major advances in orthopaedic medicine | on ~ an advance on the existing techniques | towards ~ an advance towards a better understanding of God

³ money

ADJ. large | cash

VERB + ADVANCE give, pay The publishers have paid me an advance. | get, receive

PREP. ~ of an advance of ￡10,000 | ~ on He was paid ￡5,000 as an advance on royalties.

⁴ advances: sexual

ADJ. amorous, sexual

VERB + ADVANCE make He made amorous advances to one of his students.

PREP. ~ to

 

advance verb

¹ move forward

ADV. quickly, rapidly | cautiously, slowly

PREP. from advancing from the south | into The troops advanced into central Europe. | on/upon The army advanced on the capital. | towards He advanced towards me in aggressive style.

² develop

ADV. considerably, greatly, significantly | rapidly

PREP. beyond Society needs to advance beyond prejudice and superstition.

进步

progress noun

¹ movement forwards

ADJ. considerable, dramatic, encouraging, excellent, genuine, good, great, impressive, real, remarkable, significant, substantial | fast, rapid, swift | inexorable | slow, stately We watched the ship's stately progress out of the harbour. | satisfactory, steady | further | academic, educational

VERB + PROGRESS achieve, make | assess, chart, check (on), evaluate, monitor, observe, review, trace, track, watch Regular tests enable the teacher to monitor the progress of each child. | block, hamper, hinder, impede, obstruct, slow (down) | halt, stop | accelerate, facilitate

PROGRESS + NOUN report

PREP. in ~ There was a cricket match in progress. | ~ from … to … The book traced his steady progress from petty theft to serious crime. | ~ in He's making good progress in maths. | ~ on How much progress have the builders made on the extension? | ~ towards Who can halt Woods' inexorable progress towards yet another championship? | ~ with She's making steady progress with her thesis.

PHRASES a lack of progress I was frustrated by my apparent lack of progress when I started the violin. | a rate of progress At the present rate of progress we won't be finished before July. | work in progress I have one file for completed work and one for work in progress.

² improvement in society

ADJ. economic, evolutionary, industrial, medical, scientific, social, technical, technological | human

VERB + PROGRESS hold back

PHRASES the march of progress the onward march of technological progress

 

progress verb

ADV. satisfactorily, smoothly, well The talks are progressing very well. | further He felt he still needed to progress further in his learning. | rapidly progressing rapidly in his chosen career | slowly The work is progressing quite slowly. | steadily

VERB + PROGRESS fail to

PREP. beyond Samir failed to progress beyond this first step on the ladder. | from, through allowing students to progress through the stages of the course | to She soon progressed from the basics to more difficult work. | towards slowly progressing towards a new kind of art | up his ambition to progress up the career ladder | with They are keen to progress with the scheme.

发展

development noun

¹ developing sth

ADJ. full School should encourage the full development of a student's talents. | gradual | rapid | sustainable | healthy | commercial, economic, industrial | evolutionary, historical | regional | rural, suburban, urban | human | educational, emotional, intellectual, linguistic, personal, physical, psychological, sexual, social, spiritual | software | child | property

VERB + DEVELOPMENT aid, allow, assist, encourage, enhance, facilitate, favour, foster, permit, promote, stimulate, support Education stimulates the stage in the development of Anglo-Irish relations | a stage of development This is a perfectly normal stage of development.

² new event/idea

ADJ. exciting, important, major, radical, remarkable, significant, striking | the latest, new, recent | logical The move from TV to film was a logical development in her career. | unexpected | welcome | political, scientific, technical, technological

DEVELOPMENT + VERB occur, take place the significant developments taking place in the health service

PREP. ~ in new developments in film-making

³ new buildings

ADJ. housing, property | development of rational thinking. A group of experts has been brought together to support the develop business, commercial | ribbon | accelerate, speed up Ribbon developments (= lines of Environmental factors can buildings) extended along the main accelerate the development of road.certain cancers. | arrest, discourage, halt, hinder, inhibit, prevent, restrict, retard, slow Too much emphasis on memorizing facts can inhibit the development of creative thinking. | finance The company went deep into debt to finance the development of the engine. | monitor, oversee A UN team is monitoring the development of the peace process. | trace In the opening chapter, the author traces the development of judo from its ancient roots.

DEVELOPMENT + VERB occur, take place

DEVELOPMENT + NOUN initiative, plan, programme, project, scheme | aid, assistance | work The invention requires more development work to make it viable. | process the lengthy development process of a new model of car | budget, capital, fund, grant | costs, expenditure

PREP. during ~ Cell divisions during development occur in a fixed sequence. | in ~ A more powerful version of this electric bus in currently in development. | under ~ The new vaccine is still under development.

PHRASES research and development I do quite a lot of research and development work in my job. | a stage in the development of sth an important

英雄

hero noun

ADJ. big, great He was one of the great football heroes of his day. | real | all-time Einstein is the all-time hero of many scientists. | unsung She was an unsung hero of the British film industry. | reluctant, unlikely | brave, gallant The song remembers the brave heroes who died for their country. | romantic, tragic Being short and overweight, he was an unlikely romantic hero. | square-jawed, swashbuckling Tired of playing the square-jawed hero, he sought out more challenging roles. | all-conquering, conquering In his war stories he portrayed himself as the all-conquering hero. He returned home from the tournament a conquering hero. | fallen a fallen hero trying to regain his position | cult James Dean was a cult hero of the fifties. | folk, local, national, popular | fictional, legendary, mythical | eponymous Don Quixote, the eponymous hero of the novel by Cervantes | boyhood, childhood Bugs Bunny was one of my childhood heroes. | proletarian, working-class | military | celluloid | musical In this album she pays tribute to her musical heroes. | film, football, guitar, sporting, war Jimi Hendrix was her guitar hero.

VERB + HERO be hailed (as) He was hailed as a hero after the rescue. | become, make sb into, turn sb into The fight to save the forest turned him into a local hero. | die He died a national hero.

PREP. ~ to He was a hero to all his schoolmates.

PHRASES be no hero John was no hero?he stood back as his friends approached the two armed border guards. | give sb/receive a hero's welcome, hero of the hour Everyone played brilliantly, but Jones was the hero of the hour. | (die) a hero's death

领导者

leader noun

¹ person who is in charge of sth

ADJ. born, natural | charismatic, effective, good, great, inspiring, inspired, visionary | undisputed | powerful, strong | weak | deputy | former | joint | local, national | opposition, parliamentary, party | Conservative, Labour, etc. | military, political, religious, spiritual | gang, guerrilla, nationalist, rebel | group, project, squadron, team Discuss any problems with your team leader. | business, church, civic, community, council, government, strike, student, (trade) union, youth Business leaders have been in talks with the government. | miners', teachers', etc.

VERB + LEADER be appointed, become, be elected | appoint (sb), appoint sb as, choose (sb as), elect (sb), elect sb as, nominate (sb), nominate sb as

PHRASES a leader of the Opposition

² person/team that is best or in first place

ADJ. undisputed | brand, market, world The company is a world leader in electrical goods. | championship, league, tournament

VERB + LEADER overtake aiming to overtake the market leaders within two years

PREP. behind the ~ ten points behind league leaders Manchester United | ~ in the undisputed leader in her field

社会

society noun

¹ people who have shared customs and laws

ADJ. wider the position of women within the family and the wider society | contemporary, modern | traditional | advanced the division of labour in an advanced capitalist society | primitive | egalitarian, free, just, open | closed | civilized, humane | affluent the consumerist values of the affluent society | consumer, consumerist | throwaway Our throwaway society must be encouraged to recycle. | permissive | multicultural, multiracial, pluralistic | divided, stratified Years of high unemployment have left society deeply divided. | civil the relationship between the state and civil society | secular | human a theory on the basis of human society | class | classless | tribal | matriarchal, patriarchal | bourgeois | capitalist, democratic, feudal, socialist, etc. | industrial, post-industrial, pre-industrial | agricultural, technological | Western | rural, urban, village | polite Such language would not be used in polite society.

VERB + SOCIETY build, create, shape the struggle to build a just society | permeate, pervade the greed that pervades modern society | fit into Prisoners often have problems fitting into society on their release. | polarize

SOCIETY + VERB be based on sth a society based on social justice

PREP. in/within (a) ~ the role of television in modern Western society

PHRASES a cross-section of society The clinic deals with a wide cross-section of society | the fabric of society The civil war tore apart the fabric of society. | the higher/top echelons of society Officers were drawn largely from the top echelons of society. | a level/rank/stratum of society Child cruelty exists at all levels of society. | a member of society welfare reforms to protect the most vulnerable members of society | an outcast from/of society She devoted herself to helping the outcasts of society. | the backbone/a bulwark/a pillar of society One of the pillars of society must be that everyone has access to the legal system. He considered himself to be a pillar of society. | your place/rank in society A person's job is one of the factors that determines their place in society. | the rest of society He felt isolated from the rest of society. | a section/sector/segment of society Every section of society must have access to education. | society as a whole The research examines minorities and their relation to society as a whole. | society at large Health standards have risen in society at large. | the structure of a society the class structure of British society

² organization formed for a particular purpose

ADJ. secret | debating, dramatic, historical, horticultural, law, medical, musical, religious, etc.

VERB + SOCIETY belong to She belongs to the historical society. | become a member of, join | create, establish, form, found, set up, start

PREP. in a/the ~ She was active in the Society for Women's Suffrage. | ~ for a society for the prevention of cruelty to animals | ~ of the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders > Note at ORGANIZATION

民主的

democratic adj.

¹ favouring/practising democracy

VERBS be | become | remain There have been major changes in the constitution, but the system remains democratic.

ADV. genuinely, truly | fully, thoroughly a fully democratic society | fairly, quite, reasonably They have a fairly democratic form of government. | dangerously In 1776 these were considered dangerously democratic principles.

² being fair to different sides

VERBS be, seem

ADV. extremely, very | fairly, quite, reasonably I think it was a reasonably democratic decision.

民主

democracy noun

ADJ. genuine, true | political | constitutional, parliamentary | multi-party | Western

VERB + DEMOCRACY believe in, support people who believe in true democracy | fight for | establish | restore The military regime has promised to restore democracy soon.

PREP. in a/the ~ We live in a multi-party democracy.

PHRASES pro-democracy a pro-democracy demonstration in the capital | the road to democracy the need to overcome political apathy and advance on the road to democracy | the spread of democracy

环境

environment noun

¹ conditions of the place where you are

ADJ. immediate Cold-blooded animals depend on the temperature of their immediate environment. | alien, new, unfamiliar | changing | protected, safe, secure, stable | friendly | pleasant | clean, healthy | stimulating | favourable This period provided a favourable environment for the spread of communism. | uncertain, unstable | dangerous | noisy | competitive | hostile | extreme, harsh | fragile Walkers can unwittingly damage the fragile environment in which the birds live. | rural, urban | arid, cold, warm | aquatic, coastal, forest, mountain | domestic, family, home Children learn best in their home environment. | physical | cultural, emotional, social | office, work, working, workplace A comfortable working environment will increase productivity. | classroom, educational, learning, school, teaching, training | economic, financial Investors are showing more caution in the current economic environment. | political | business, commercial, corporate She now had to transfer her design skills to a commercial environment. | professional

VERB + ENVIRONMENT create, provide parents who strive to provide a stimulating environment for their children to grow up in | adapt to creatures that have adapted to hostile desert environments | improve | explore The cat walked round, exploring its new environment.

PREP. in an/the ~ people working in increasingly competitive environments

² the environment the natural world

ADJ. natural | global, world | local

VERB + ENVIRONMENT preserve, protect, safeguard The government should do more to protect the environment. | clean spokesman, spokeswoman | policy | conference | protection | issues

PREP. in the ~ the amount of carbon in the environment

PHRASES conservation/protection of the environment, damage to the environment farming methods that minimize damage to the environment | harmful to the environment The label identifies the products that are least harmful to the environment. | pollution of the environment up, improve | have an impact on factors that have a huge impact on the environment | damage, harm, pollute industries which damage the environment

ENVIRONMENT + NOUN agency, committee, department, group, ministry | minister, official,

科技

technology noun

ADJ. current, existing, present-day | emerging, the latest, modern, new small businesses that are involved with emerging technologies | basic, low | advanced, complex, high, leading-edge, sophisticated, state-of-the-art, up-to-date, white-hot | alternative, innovative a car based on alternative technology | efficient | communication/communications, computer, digital, energy, information, management, manufacturing, nuclear, production, software, telecommunications | educational, environmental, medical, military

VERB + TECHNOLOGY have We now have the technologies to transplant limbs. | adopt, apply, employ, exploit, introduce, take advantage of, use exploiting existing technologies more fully | create, develop, improve | be based on a car engine based on technology developed for aeroplanes | invest in The company is investing heavily in new technologies.

TECHNOLOGY + VERB develop Telecommunications technology is developing fast. | allow sth, enable sth This technology enables computers to read handwriting.

PREP. ~ for the technology for the extraction of iron ore

PHRASES advances in technology recent advances in medical technology | the impact of (a) technology, science and technology

政治学

politics noun

¹ work/ideas connected with getting/using power

ADJ. county, local She was active in local politics for many years. | domestic, internal, national the country's internal politics the internal politics of the legal profession | global, international, world | democratic, electoral, multiparty, parliamentary, party | contemporary, modern | mainstream | practical He argued that it was not practical politics to abolish private schools. | power They took the view that Casper was playing power politics with their jobs at stake. | consensus Consensus politics places a high value on existing political institutions. | conviction | cultural, gender, sexual | office

VERB + POLITICS enter, go into They went into politics in the hope of changing society. | abandon, retire from He abandoned politics and went into business. | be interested in | be active in, be engaged in, be/get immersed in, be/get involved in, engage in, participate in | dabble in, play (informal) | get embroiled in | interfere in, intervene in, meddle in As a churchman, he was accused of meddling in politics. | dominate the issues which have dominated Irish politics | reshape reforms that are intended to reshape Italian politics

POLITICS + VERB dominate sth In their world politics dominates everything.

PHRASES the world of politics

² political beliefs

ADJ. extreme, radical His manners were as mild as his politics were extreme. | left-wing, right-wing | sectarian | working-class | feminist

VERB + POLITICS discuss, talk (about) (informal) Let's not talk politics now.

³ study of government

ADJ. comparative > Note at SUBJECT(for verbs and nouns)

想象力

imagination noun

ADJ. great | active, creative, fertile, vivid | fevered, overactive, overheated It's just a product of your fevered imagination! | collective, popular, public a popular hero who inspired the collective imagination | visual I was no good at art?I have a very poor visual imagination. | historical, literary It requires a strong effort of historical imagination to understand the Roman attitude to death. | human the powers of the human imagination

VERB + IMAGINATION have | show | lack Today's pop music lacks imagination. | require, take It does not take great imagination to guess what happened next. | use I haven't got a picture of this so you'll just have to use your imagination. | capture, captivate, catch, excite, fire, inspire, seize, stimulate, stir Victorian writers fired the popular imagination with their tales of adventure. | grip, hold Dinosaurs caught and have held the imagination of us all because they seem like dragons. | stretch, tax | defy The scale of the disaster defied imagination (= was greater than you could imagine). | leave sth to As for their reaction, I'll leave that to your imagination!

IMAGINATION + VERB conjure sth up His imagination conjured up a vision of the normal family life he had never had. | run away with you, run riot/wild

PREP. beyond (your) ~ misery that is beyond most people's imagination | in the/your ~ Nobody hates you?it's all in your imagination! | with/without ~ He was totally without imagination.

PHRASES a lack of imagination, a figment/product of sb's imagination The figure vanished as silently as if it had simply been a figment of her imagination. | not by any/by no stretch of the imagination Not by any stretch of the imagination could she be called beautiful (= she was definitely not beautiful in any way). | only your imagination Is it only my imagination or have you lost weight? | with a little imagination With a little imagination you can create a delicious meal from yesterday's leftovers.

政府

government noun

¹ people in control of a country

ADJ. central, federal, local, national, provincial, regional | Communist, Conservative, Labour, etc. the country's new Communist government | left-wing, right-wing | coalition | minority The socialists won 42% of the seats and formed a minority government. | caretaker, interim, transitional The president dissolved the assembly and swore in an interim government. | military | puppet | French, Western, etc. The report on world poverty calls for urgent action from Western governments.

VERB + GOVERNMENT elect The present government was elected last year. | form A nre government was formed in September of that year. | install A puppet government was installed as the occupying forces withdrew. | swear in | head, run a new government headed by a former military leader | bring down, destabilize, oust, overthrow, topple This crisis could bring down the British government. The group aims to overthrow the military government.

GOVERNMENT + VERB come to power | take office On May 23 a coalition government took office. | fall, resign a national emergency that could cause the government to fall | announce sth The government announced the cancellation of the dam project. | introduce sth, launch sth

GOVERNMENT + NOUN agency, body, department | funds, money | aid, assistance, backing, funding, grant, subsidy, support | expenditure, spending | cuts The hospital has been hit by government cuts. | control | intervention, involvement calls for government intervention in the dispute | minister, official, representative, spokesman | sources According to government sources, two people died in the incident. | figures, statistics | post | reshuffle The former minister was relieved of his post in last month's extensive government reshuffle. | decisions, legislation, measures, plans, policy, proposals | report | propaganda

PREP. in ~ a problem facing whichever party is in government | under a/the ~ measures that were introduced under the last government

PHRASES a change of government It is time we had a change of government. | the government of the day This was a decision taken by the government of the day. | a member of a government The prime minister has been meeting members of the French government.

² act of governing

ADJ. democratic, representative | firm, good, strong We need strong government to take the country through this crisis. | weak

经验

experience noun

¹ knowledge/skill got from seeing/doing sth

ADJ. considerable, long, wide | good, invaluable, relevant, unrivalled, valuable She didn't get paid much but it was all good experience. Both candidates for the presidency were short of relevant experience. Rolls Royce's unrivalled experience in high technology manufacturing | previous Do you have any previous experience of this type of work? | direct, first-hand, hands-on, practical the importance of hands-on experience as well as academic training | professional, work

VERB + EXPERIENCE have | lack | gain, get | broaden She wanted to broaden her experience in international affairs.

PREP. ~ of She has considerable professional experience of translation.

PHRASES a lack of experience, a wealth of experience The veteran goalkeeper will bring a wealth of experience to the team.

² the things that have happened to you

ADJ. past We're in for a difficult couple of weeks, if past experience is anything to go by. | direct, first-hand, hands-on, personal | subjective Experience is subjective and very hard to measure. | vicarious I love reading: I have an insatiable appetite for vicarious experience. | common, shared his peers, with whom he shares the common experience of being black in a white society | common It is a matter of common experience that disorder will increase if things are left to themselves. | everyday Choose illustrative examples from the children's everyday experience. | human There are few areas of human experience that have not been written about. | sensory

VERB + EXPERIENCE have | share | draw on, learn by/from/through In her book, she draws on her first-hand experience of mental illness. We all learn by experience. | be based on The book is based on personal experience.

EXPERIENCE + VERB suggest sth, teach (sb) sth Experience has taught me that life can be very unfair.

PREP. by/from ~ We know from experience that hot objects are painful to touch. | in sb's ~ In my experience, very few people really understand the problem. | ~ of He has direct experience of poverty.

³ event/activity that affects you

ADJ. enjoyable, exhilarating, good, interesting, liberating, pleasant, rewarding, unforgettable, valuable | bad, harrowing, painful, traumatic, unnerving, unsettling I had a bad experience with fireworks once. | hair-raising, nerve-racking a hair-raising experience of white-water rafting | humbling, salutary, sobering | personal, subjective | common, shared The use of drama can motivate students by allowing them to share a common experience. | common It is a common experience to feel that an author writes well, without being able to say why. | real-life | past | childhood, early, formative Early experiences shape the way we face up to and deal with crises in later life. | educational, learning | mystical, religious, visionary | psychic | sexual | near-death

VERB + EXPERIENCE enjoy, go through, have, undergo She has been through a very traumatic experience. I think you will enjoy the experience of taking part in the show. | come through, get over It could take him years to get over this experience. | describe, recount, talk about | share, swap Does anyone have any experiences?good or bad?that they would like to share with the group? | relive Reliving past experiences can release powerful feelings that have been pent up too long. | be based on The novel is based on his experiences in the war.

PHRASES quite an experience It was quite an experience being involved in making a television programme.

 

experience verb

ADV. actually | directly, first-hand He hadn't directly experienced the fighting in the city. people who have actually experienced these problems first-hand | subjectively

智力

intelligence noun

¹ ability to understand

ADJ. acute, considerable, great, high a writer with an acute intelligence This essay shows considerable intelligence. | quick | average, normal | limited, low | innate, native | human | artificial Computer scientists study artificial intelligence.

VERB + INTELLIGENCE have At least he had the intelligence to turn off the gas. | demonstrate, show | use

INTELLIGENCE + NOUN test

² information

ADJ. secret We've obtained secret intelligence about enemy plans. | reliable | military Military intelligence is gathered using sophisticated technology. | criminal

VERB + INTELLIGENCE collect, gather

INTELLIGENCE + NOUN agency, service He works for the French intelligence service. | officer | gathering His unit was responsible for intelligence gathering in North Africa. | report | operation

合理的

reasonable adj.

VERBS appear, be, seem, sound | consider sth, judge sth, regard sth as, think sth

ADV. eminently, extremely, very | entirely, perfectly, utterly The police apparently thought this explanation perfectly reasonable. | fairly, quite | enough Her request sounded reasonable enough to me. | apparently

情绪，情感

emotion noun

ADJ. deep, extreme, intense, overwhelming, powerful, profound, strong, violent | complex | conflicting, contradictory, mixed, tangled She felt torn by conflicting emotions. | destructive, negative Counselling can teach people to handle negative emotions such as fear and anger. | positive | inner, innermost | painful | fragile The nurse was handling his fragile emotions very carefully. | raw a moving performance full of raw emotion | pent-up, suppressed Years of pent-up emotion came out as he sobbed. | human Fear is a normal human emotion.

QUANT. flicker, hint, trace There wasn't a hint of emotion in his eyes. | flood, rush, surge, wave She felt a sudden rush of emotion at the thought of seeing him again. | display She could not cope with such public displays of emotion.

VERB + EMOTION experience, feel the emotions that we experience as children He felt no emotion as she left. | be choked with, be filled with, be overcome with Her voice was choked with emotion. | be devoid of, be drained of | display, express, show Drama can help children to express their emotions. The woman's face showed no emotion. | release Releasing these emotions is part of the healing process. | betray | shake with, tremble with She realized she was shaking all over with emotion. | bottle up, control, hide, stifle, suppress | cope with, deal with, handle | confront Counsellors encourage victims of crime to confront their emotions. | arouse, provoke, stir (up) an incident that has aroused strong emotions locally | be charged with, be full of a speech that was charged with emotion

PREP. with/without ~ She spoke with deep emotion.

PHRASES depth/intensity of emotion The film has a surprising depth of emotion for a comedy. | a gamut/range of emotions Her performance in the play covered the whole gamut of emotions.

沟通，交流

communication noun

¹ act of communicating

ADJ. effective, good Good communication is important for business. | poor | direct | open | two-way | interpersonal | regular | electronic, non-verbal, verbal, written | business

VERB + COMMUNICATION have I haven't had any communication with him for several years. | establish | facilitate, improve | prevent measures which prevented the prisoners' communication with the outside world

COMMUNICATION + VERB break down Communication between the two sides has broken down.

COMMUNICATION + NOUN skills | breakdown

PREP. in ~ with We are in regular communication with the kidnappers. | ~ between to establish direct communication between the lookout towers | ~ by communication by letter | ~ with We need better communication with clients.

PHRASES a breakdown in communication(s), channels/lines of communication to keep open the channels of communication | a lack of communication, a means/method/system of communication Letters are their only means of communication.

² communications: systems for sending information

ADJ. good | online | global, international | mass | radio, rail, road, telephone

VERB + COMMUNICATION have | cut off, disrupt

COMMUNICATION + NOUN centre, links, network, satellite, system, technology

PREP. ~ between They tried to disrupt communications between the two headquarters. | ~ with Paris has good rail communications with other major cities.

³ message

ADJ. formal, official

VERB + COMMUNICATION receive | send

PREP. ~ about He received an official communication about the reorganization of the Ministry. | ~ from, ~ to a communication from the officer to the general

一致性

conformity noun

ADJ. complete | strict | outward a society of outward religious conformity | political, religious, sexual, social

QUANT. degree

VERB + CONFORMITY achieve, bring sth into, ensure to bring national laws into conformity with European laws

PREP. in ~ with The procedure is in strict conformity with standard international practices. | ~ between to achieve conformity between all the schemes | ~ to conformity to the accepted standards | ~ with We work to ensure conformity with the customer's wishes.

个体

individual noun

ADJ. outstanding, talented | key | powerful | creative | average, ordinary Their research shows that the average individual watches around three and a half hours of television per day. | private He was carrying out his functions as a trustee in the course of his business, rather than as a private individual. | single | particular, certain The motives influencing a particular individual may change from time to time. | autonomous, independent His philosophy is about becoming aware of oneself as an autonomous individual. | isolated Society does not consist of isolated individuals, but people in a network of relationships. | unique She saw the artist as a unique individual, possessing a heightened awareness of reality. | like-minded a group of like-minded individuals | named The book recommends that you sign ‘Yours sincerely’ if you are send | qualified We welcome applications from suitably qualified individuals. | human We know that all human individuals are unique.

VERB + INDIVIDUAL treat sb as The teacher should treat each pupil as an individual.

INDIVIDUAL + VERB vary Although individuals vary widely, the bones of the average female skeleton are smaller and lighter than the male.

INDIVIDUAL + NOUN level His writings are concerned with religious phenomena at the individual level.

PHRASES any/no/one individual No single individual had done so much for the development of the motor vehicle. | concern for the individual, the freedom of the individual the issue of the freedom of the individual versus the intervention of the state | a group of individuals She had taken a group of individuals and made them into a superb team. | the individual concerned It's up to the individual concerned to contact the police. | the needs of the individual Each course has to be tailored to the needs of the individual. | respect for the individual, vary from individual to individual Eating habits are bound to vary from individual to individual.

实用的

pragmatic adj.

VERBS be, seem | become

ADV. highly, very | entirely, purely, utterly | essentially, largely Our approach is essentially pragmatic. | quite, rather

PREP. about They're pragmatic about the spending cuts.

理想的

ideal adj.

VERBS be, look, seem, sound | make sth The hotel's size makes it ideal for large conferences. | consider sth

ADV. absolutely | almost | less than Language learning often takes place in a less than ideal environment.

PREP. for The houses are absolutely ideal for families with young children.

 

ideal noun

ADJ. high, lofty, noble Sam was a real leader who had high moral ideals. | unattainable This is not an unattainable ideal. | aesthetic, artistic, ethical, moral, political | democratic, liberal, revolutionary, socialist

VERB + IDEAL be committed to, be devoted to, believe in, cling to, espouse, have, support They still clung to the old ideals. | pursue, strive for | achieve, attain, be true to, conform to, live up to A journalist should always live up to the ideals of truth, decency, and justice. | fall short of This agreement falls far short of the ideal. | abandon, betray She was accused of betraying her political ideals. | embody, reflect the democratic ideals embodied in the charter

媒体

media noun

ADJ. audio-visual, broadcast, broadcasting, electronic, mass, news, print, visual The event was widely covered by the mass media | foreign, international, local, national | mainstream, official, popular

MEDIA + VERB report sth The local media reported rioting across the country.

MEDIA + NOUN attention, coverage, interest, publicity, reporting There was a lot of media coverage of the wedding. | campaign | report | event Sport has been turned into a series of media events. | blitz, circus, hype The company is anxious to play down the media hype. | spotlight | image She's very different from her media image. | bias | blackout, censorship | freedom | relations | baron, magnate, mogul, person, pundit, tycoon | conglomerate, empire, group, interests, organization, outlet | awareness, studies

PREP. through/via the ~ propaganda through the media

PHRASES access to the media, the role of the media

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