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Main contents of medical psychology---Basic knowledge
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Medical psychology
Contents in Brief
1. An introduction to Psychology and medical psychology
2. Basic knowledge of psychology
3. Stress and illness, coping
4. Psychophysiological disorders
5. Psychological disorders
6. Psychological testing
7.Psychotherapy
8. compliance
9. placebo
10. patient’s mind
Basic knowledge of psychology
Sensation and perception
Sensation and perception are the gateway from the external world to the mind.
Sensation: the process by which the sense organs gather information about the environment and transmit this information to the brain for initial processing.
Vision
Hearing（ Audition）
Smell（Olfaction）
Taste （Gustation）
Touch
Proprioception（the sense of the body’s position and motion）
Transduction: Sensation begins with an environmental stimulus；all sensory systems have specialized cells called receptors that respond to environmental stimuli and typically generate action potentials in adjacent sensory nervous。
Thresholds:
Absolute thresholds：the minimum amount of physical energy needed for an observer to notice a stimulus 。
Difference thresholds ：the lowest level of stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred。 （the difference in intensity between two stimuli necessary to produce a just noticeable difference。）
Perception:
The process by which the brain organizes and interprets these sensations. The hallmarks of perception is organization and interpretation.
Perceptual organization:
It integrates sensations into perception.
Form perception: refers to the organization of sensation into meaningful shapes and patterns。
Depth perception
The organization of perception in three dimension。
It organizes two-dimensional retinal images into a three-dimensional world primarily through binocular and monocular visual cues。
Motion perception : the perception of movement.
Perceptual illusions: Normal perceptual processes produce perceptual misinterpretations。
Perceptual constancy: The organization of changing sensations into percepts that are relatively stable in size,shape and color
Color constancy: tendency to perceive the color of objects as stable despite changing illumination
Shape constancy:we can maintain constant perception of the shape of objects despite the fact that the same object typically produces a new and different impression on the retina.
Size constancy: Objects do not appear to change in size when viewed from different distances.
Perceptual interpretation:
Involves generation meaning from sensory experience. It lies at the intersection of sensation and memory.
Perception is nether entirely innate nor entirely learned。
Expectations and perception
Experience with the environment thus shapes perception by creating perceptual expectation, an important top-down influence on perception. These expectations called Perceptual set.
Motivation and perception
Motivation, like cognition, can exert a top-down influence on perception.
Basic principles of sensation and perception
1、there is no one-to-one correspondence between physical and psychological reality
2、sensation and perception are active
3、sensation and perception are adaptive
Learning
Any enduring change in the way an organism responds based on its experience.Learning theories assume that experience shapes behavior.
Assumptions of Learning theories
1. experience shapes behavior.
2. learning is central to adaptation.
3. careful experimentation can uncover laws of learning.
Memory
Memory involves taking something we have observed, and converting it into a form we can store, retrieve and use.
Sensory registers
Hold information about a perceived stimulus for a split second after the stimulus disappears, allowing a mental representation of it to remain in memory briefly for further processing.
Visual sensory registration
A brief period after an image disappears from vision, people retain a mental image of what they have seen.
The duration of icon varies from approximately half a second to two seconds.(Depend on the individual, the content of the image and the circumstances)
Short-term Memory(STM)
A memory store that holds a small amount of information in consciousness for roughly 20-30 seconds.
STM has limited capacity. on the average, people can remember about seven pieces of information at a time, with a normal range of from five to nine items.
Long-term Memory(LTM)
LTM representations of facts, images, thoughts, feelings, skills, and experiences may reside for as long as a lifetime.
Working memory
The temporary storage and processing of information that can be used to solve problems, respond to environmental demands or achieve goals.
Information remains in working memory only so long as the person is consciously processing, examining, or manipulating it.
The difference between STM and LTM
It is like the difference between searching for information in an open computer file versus first finding the file on the heard drive.
STM Brief, limited in capacity, quickly accessed
LTM Enduring, virtually limitless, more difficulty to accessed
Forgetting
The inability to remember.
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve:
Forgetting follows a standard pattern, with rapid initial loss of information followed by more gradual later decline.
(The rate of forgetting is initially very high but eventually becomes very low)
Motivation
The moving force that energizes behavior.
Tow components: goal: what people want to do
strength: how strongly they want to do
Divided into: biological needs psychosocial needs
Both types of motives have roots in biology and are both shaped by culture and experience
A Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow:
Maslow’s hierarchy includes physilolgical, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization needs. Basic needs must be met before higher level needs become active.
Self-actualization needs
The need to express oneself and grow, or to actualize one’s potential.
They are not deficiency needs; not generated by a lack of something, rather, they are growth needs, motives to expand and develop one’s skills and abilities.
Main motivation of human being
Eating
Obesity: is defined as body weight 15 percent or more above the ideal for one’s height and age.
Sexual motivation
It is driven by both fantasies and hormones and is shaped by culture
exual orientation: the direction of a person’s enduring sexual attraction: to members of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both.
Human sexuality differs substantially from sexuality in other animal species---or does it?
Intelligence
The application of cognitive skills and knowledge to learn, solve problems, and obtain ends that are valued by an individual or culture.
1, Problem-solving abilities
2, Knowledge about the world
3, book smarts (Academic intelligence )
4, Interpersonal skill(social intelligence)
Intelligence test
It Represent a type of psychometric instrument designed to assess an individual’s cognitive capabilities compared to others in a population.
IQ
Intelligence quotient is a score meant to represent an individual’s intellectual ability. Which permits comparison with other individuals.
Intelligence tests are highly predictive of scholastic success, and also predict occupational success.
Some Intelligence theory
Charles Spearman(1863-1945)
Spearman’s two-factor theory:
distinguishes the g-factor,or general intelligence, from s-factor, or specific abilities.
g-factor General intelligence
Arithmetic ability,
General knowledge
Vocabulary
S-factor specific intelligence
Specific abilities unique to certain tests or shared only by a subset of tests.
It explain the differences in correlations between different pairs of measures.
Three variables are particularly important in explaining individual differences as assessed by intelligence tests.
1. Speed of processing Processing speed appears to be an important aspect of intelligence and a strong correlate of IQ.
2. Knowledge base The information stored in long-term memory
Not only amount of knowledge a person has, but the way it is organized and its accessibility for retrieval.
3. The ability to acquire mental strategies Mnemonic devices and formulas for solving math problems Apply them to new situation.
multiple intelligences:
Howard Gardner: views intelligence as “an ability or set of abilities that is used to solve problems or fashion products that are of consequence in a particular cultural setting.”
Gardner distinguished seven kinds of intelligence that are relatively independent, neurologically distinct, and show different courses of development.include
musical, bodily, spatial, linguistic or verbal, logical/mathematical, intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence.
Heredity and intelligence
IQ reflects a combination of nature and nurture.
Twin, family and adoption studies suggest that heredity, environment, and their interaction all contribute to IQ.
But genetic factors are likely more important in explaining difference between individuals
Mental retardation
Significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning with deficits in adaptive behavior manifested during childhood
Giftedness
The extremes at the other end of the bell curve（Distribution curve of normal）
Creativity
The ability to produce valued outcomes in a novel way. it is correlated with IQ but not reducible to it
Emotion
Is an evaluative response that typically includes
subjective experience,
physiological arousal and
behavioral expression.
Emotional expression
Facial and other out ward indications of emotion.
Such as: Body language, Tone of voice
Many aspects of emotional expression are innate and cross-cultural universal.
Basic emotion
Anger
Fear
Happiness
Sadness
Disgust
Positive affect
Negative affect
personality
Enduring patterns of thought, feeling, motivation, and behavior that are expressed in different circumstances.
General theories of personality
Psychodynamic theroies
Cognitive –social theories
Traits theories
Humanistic theories
Personality and culture
The structure of personality:
The way personality processes are organized
Eysenck considers the major factors to be :
Extroversion
Neuroticism
psychoticism
Big Five Factors Model(FFM)
Open to experience
Conscientiousness
Extroversion
Agreeableness
neuroticism
Most are influenced by nature and nurture, some are highly heritable.
Trait theories tend to describe, rather than explain personality
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