——哈佛地理系的关闭是学术定位的争议与地理系同事间的倾轧（涉及校长、系主任等）

            ——哈佛地理系关门带来连锁反应等原因，曾导致耶鲁大学等常春藤名校纷纷撤销地理系

       哈佛地理系自1948年被校方宣传正式关闭后，Howard T. Fisher 等个别教授（从资料看，仅他一人有实验室）以实验室为基地孤军奋战，在1960年代仍然培养出“孤独的GIS教父”。然而，随着Howard T. Fisher 1979年去世、实验室（Laboratory for Computer Graphics，LCG）撤消，哈佛地理信息系统研究很快就走向了下坡。此时，美加等其他一些高校的GIS却方兴未艾、蓬勃发展。

       哈佛大学聊以自慰的是，在地理系关门的日子，Howard T. Fisher教授等个别教授以微薄之力支撑危局，培养出迄今仍是独步世界的“孤独的GIS教父”——Jack Dangermond。

       1979年之后，哈佛大学的地理学研究已是一没有实验室、二没有地理类教学课程。但Peter Rogers教授决心不放弃GIS研究，毕业不久的Lucia Lovison-Golob先生也愿意共同努力，Carl Steinitz教授也在《景观设计与规划》课程中穿插部分GIS内容。直到1995年哈佛大学才开出了第一门GIS专门课程。近些年哈佛大学地理分析中心的建立与此余脉及Jack Dangermond的鼎力支持有关。  

附1：http://www.gim-international.com/issues/articles/id1049-Harvard_University.html

Archive > January 2008, Volume 22, Issue 1 > Harvard University
Harvard University  01/01/2008
By Lucia Lovison-Golob, Harvard University, USA
Harvard University for many years had no geography department, yet faculties and students have played an important role in GIS and there is now considerable academic activity focused on interoperability. In the 1960s Howard T. Fisher (1903-1979), who directed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics (LCG) at Harvard Graduate School of Design (GSD), was a pioneer in adapting computerised technology to the field of geography. One of his students was Jack Dangermond, Harvard MLA 1969 and the founder of ESRI Inc.

First Formal Course
With the death of Professor Fisher in 1979 operations ceased at LCG. In the absence of any course offerings in geography at Harvard, some graduate students of Professor Peter Rogers decided in about 1990 to learn GIS on their own. As a recent graduate MS Geophysics, I was one of the first participants in this effort. Although Professor Carl Steinitz at GSD used GIS on his courses in Landscape Architecture and Planning, it was only in 1995 that Paul Cote held the first formal course in GIS at GSD under the direction of Professor Stephen Ervin.

OGC Member
In 1997 Professor Göran Ekström from the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences and I started the Harvard GIS Colloquium Lecture series to promote collaboration at Harvard and with other institutions, giving the Harvard educational community the opportunity to learn from international GIS experts. In 1998 OGC president David Schell lectured in the Colloquium (www.gis.dce.harvard.edu). Since 2000 Harvard has been a member of OGC. Professor Henry Leitner, director of Information Technology (IT) in the Harvard Division of Continuing Education (DCE) and myself as IT instructor at DCE put Harvard students in direct contact with software architects and developers and encouraged them to adopt interoperable standards. Students pursuing master degrees in IT began developing applications focused on testing and validating implementations of OGC geospatial standards. I contributed to the second chapter of the OpenGIS WebMapServer Cookbook.

Inauguration
Following the first GIS Symposium at Harvard on 20th November 2002, Professor Peter K. Bol led the effort to establish the Center for Geographic Analysis (www.gis.harvard.edu). This was inaugurated in 2005 as part of the Institute of Quantitative Analysis, thanks to a faculty group led by then provost Steven E. Hyman and Harvard president Larry Summers, and to the vision and generosity of Jack Dangermond. Now various departments at Harvard and the Harvard Library have begun to embrace geospatial technologies and are increasingly using OGC standards. For example, at the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Merrick Lex Bexman and Bill Hayes have developed a Geographic Information Sharing Tool using KML and GML. Paul Cote has helped develop the architecture for integration of CAD, GIS, and BIM (Building Information Models) as described in the OGC Discussion Paper entitled “OGC Web Services Architecture for CAD, GIS, and BIM”.

Interoperability
Using servers both at DCE and in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, IT masters students are studying standards, interoperability and geospatial-rights management. Students and faculty members have begun participating in the OGC mass-market-geo forum. The outlook for increased adoption of OGC standards at Harvard University over the coming years is very promising, thanks to a combination of mature object-oriented and component-based technology and the existence of a supportive infrastructure with specialised personnel and resources.  

附2：哈佛大学1948年关闭的前前后后

http://geography.about.com/od/historyofgeography/a/Geography-At-Harvard.htm

http://geography.about.com/od/historyofgeography/a/Geography-At-Harvard.htm
 In the latter half of the 20th century, geography as an academic discipline suffered greatly, especially in American higher education. The reasons for this are undoubtedly many, but the biggest contributor was arguably a decision made at Harvard University in 1948 in which university President James Conant declared geography to be "not a university subject." In the ensuing decades, universities began dropping geography as an academic discipline until it was no longer found in the nation's top schools.
 But American Geographer, Carl Sauer, wrote in the opening paragraph of Education of a Geographer that "the interest [in geography] is immemorial and universal; should we [geographers] disappear, the field will remain and not become vacant." Such a prediction is bold to say the very least. But, is Sauer's assertion true? Could geography, with all its historical and contemporary importance, withstand an academic hit like it took at Harvard?
                                                                        What Happened At Harvard?
 In 1948, the president of Harvard University declared that geography was not a university subject and proceeded to remove it from the university curriculum. This set the trend for geography's reputation in American higher education for the next several decades. However, looking into that matter, it is revealed that the elimination of geography had more to do with budget cuts, clashing personalities, and geography's lack of a clear identity than whether or not it was an important subject of academic inquiry.   Several key figures emerge in this debate. The first was President James Conant. He was a physical scientist, used to the rigorous nature of research and the employment of a distinct scientific methodology, something which geography was accused of lacking at that time. His charge as the president was to guide the university through the financially lean times in the post-World War II years.
 The second key figure is Derwent Whittlesey, the chair of the geography department. Whittlesey was a human geographer, for which he was heavily criticized. Physical scientists at Harvard, including many geographers and geologists, felt that human geography was "unscientific," lacked rigor, and was not deserving of a place at Harvard. Whittlesey also had a sexual preference which was not as widely accepted in 1948. He hired his live-in partner, Harold Kemp, as a geography lecturer for the department. Kemp was considered by many a mediocre scholar which lent support to geography's critics.
 Alexander Hamilton Rice, another figure in the Harvard geography affair, founded the Institute for Geographical Exploration at the university. He was considered by many to be a charlatan and would often leave on an expedition while he was supposed to be teaching classes. This made him an annoyance to President Conant and the Harvard administration and did not help geography's reputation. Also, prior to founding the institute, Rice and his wealthy wife tried buying the presidency of the American Geographical Society, contingent on Isaiah Bowman, chair of the geography department at Johns Hopkins University, being removed from the position. Ultimately the plan did not work but the incident did create tension between Rice and Bowman.
 Isaiah Bowman was a graduate of the geography program at Harvard and was a promoter of geography, just not at his alma mater. Years earlier, a work of Bowman's had been rejected by Whittlesey for use as a geography textbook. The rejection led to an exchange of letters which strained relations between them. Bowman was also described as puritanical and it is supposed that he did not like Whittlesey's sexual preference. He also did not like Whittlesey's partner, a mediocre scholar, being associated with his alma mater. As a distinguished alumnus, Bowman was part of the committee to evaluate geography at Harvard. It is widely considered that his actions on the geography evaluation committee effectively ended the department at Harvard. Geographer Neil Smith wrote in 1987 that "Bowman's silence condemned Harvard Geography" and later, when he tried to resuscitate it, "his words put nails in the coffin."
                                            But, Is Geography Still Being Taught At Harvard?
 Geographer William Pattison, in an article in 1964, identified the subject matter of geography as belonging to four major categories which he called the Four Traditions of Geography . They are:
Earth Science Tradition - earth, water, atmosphere, and relationship to the sun
Man-land Tradition - humans and the environment, natural hazards, population, and environmentalism
Area Studies Tradition - world regions, international trends, and global relationships
Spatial Tradition - spatial analysis, geographic information systems
Researching Harvard academics online reveals the degree-granting programs that can be considered to fit within one of Pattison's four traditions of geography (below). Example courses for each program are included to show the geographic nature of material being taught within them.
Earth Science Tradition:
Programs: Oceanography and Earth and Planetary Sciences
Example courses: The Fluid Earth, Oceans, Atmosphere, Climate, and Environment and Environmental Modeling.
Man-land Tradition
Programs: Visual and Environmental Studies, Environmental Science and Public Policy, Economics
Example courses: North American Seacoasts: Discover to Present, Environmental Crises and Population Flight, and Growth and Crises in the World Economy.
Area Studies Tradition
Programs: African and African American Studies, Anthropology, Celtic Languages and Literature, East Asian Programs, Germanic Languages and Literatures, History, Inner Asian and Altaic States, Middle Eastern Studies, Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, Regional Studies, Romance Languages and Literatures, Byzantine and Medieval Studies, Social Studies, and Women, Gender, and Sexuality
Example courses: Mapping History, The Modern Mediterranean: Connections and Conflicts between Europe and North Africa, Europe and It's Borders, and Mediterranean Spaces.
Spatial Tradition
Programs: Center for Geographic Analysis at Harvard (Courses and training are integrated with other classes taught at the university)
Example courses: Mapping Social Environment and Space, Spatial Analysis of Environmental and Social Systems, and Intro to Spatial Models for Public Health.
Conclusion
 It appears that after examining what's presently being taught at Harvard, Carl Sauer was right: Should geographers disappear, the field of geographical scholarship will remain. Even though it was dismissed at Harvard, the case can easily be made that it's still being taught, albeit by a different name. Perhaps the most convincing evidence is the Center for Spatial Analysis, teaching geographic information systems (GIS), mapping, and spatial analysis.
It's also important to note that geography was likely ousted at Harvard because of clashing personalities and budgets cuts, not because it wasn't an important academic subject. One could say that it was up to geographers to defend the reputation of geography at Harvard and they failed. Now it is up to those who believe in the merits of geography to reinvigorate it in American education by encouraging and promoting geographic teaching and literacy and supporting rigorous geography standards in schools.
 This article is adapted from a paper, Geography at Harvard, Revisited, also by the author.

 Important References:
McDougall, Walter A. Why Geography Matters... But Is So Little Learned. Orbis: A Journal of World Affairs. 47. no. 2 (2003): 217-233. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/ pii/S0030438703000061 (Accessed November 26, 2012).
Pattison, William D. 1964. The Four Traditions of Geography. Journal of Geography Vol. 63 no. 5: 211-216. http://www.oneonta.edu/faculty/allenth/IntroductoryGeographyTracy Allen/THE%20FOUR%20TRADITIONS%20OF%20GEOGRAPHY.pdf. (Accessed November 26, 2012).
Smith, Neil. 1987. Academic War Over the Field of Geography: The Elimination of Geography at Harvard, 1947-1951. Annals of the Association of American Geographers Vol. 77 no. 2 155-172.

附3：http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_53dbe24b0101be6t.html

          南大校友Sweeper(2000)原创:地理系在哈佛的灭亡与计量革命

                                                            (2012-09-07 05:40:47)
发信人: Sweeper (令狐冲), 信区: UrbanRes.

标  题: 地理系在哈佛的灭亡与计量革命
发信站: 南京大学小百合 (Sun Sep 10 06:37:41 2000), 站内信件
   权当是讲故事。JUST FOR FUN。
　  想当初哈佛的地理是全美历史最悠久的地理系，师资力量也最强,哈佛的倒下可说是充分反映了地理学界长期以来的痼疾：首先地理科学本质上认识论方法论模糊，天生营养不良，缺乏极具号召力的主题，从而使地理学日益被排挤出科学的圈子；其次学科内部诸侯林立，又主要分为人文，自然二帮，且均奉行攘外必先安内的政策，内部斗争不断，结果在内外交困之下，被视为地理界龙头老大的哈佛地理系终于在1948年倒下了。
　  哈佛地理系灭亡于地理学界特例主义(Exceptionalism)盛行之时。哈特向1939年的“地理学的性质”一书可说是特例主义的经典，他在回顾了地理学发展历史的基础上，大量引用赫特纳的观点，并认为地理学的性质在于研究区域差异,区域的独特性是地理研究的核心（这本书商务印书馆有中译本）。当时,哈佛大学地理系主任Whittlesey时任美国地理界权威学报Annals of American Association of Geographers主编，是他鼓励哈特向完成了这部著作，并提供了学报的整整两期来连载哈特向的文章（极长，大家看看中译本的厚度就知道了）。哈特向的文章立即被奉为经典，地理界的权威们纷纷表态支持，包括哈佛Whittlesey, Berkeley的Sauer等。认为它彻底的宣告了臭名昭著的“环境决定论”的终结，标志这地理学走向新的时期。
　  然而这个新时期却是地理学面临死亡的时期。哈佛地理系在Whittlesey时期之初还是经历了一段辉煌，学科有所扩张，并且把持着许多领域的领先地位。著名人物包括城市地理学家Edward Ullman, 地貌学家Bowman等。但在这种区域主义的环境下，地理学在以严谨闻名的哈佛遭到了怀疑。越来越多的人攻击以这种逻辑为基础的地理学流于表面化和描述化。四十年代哈佛的校长James Conant更是在多种场合下表示地理学不是一门大学学科(geography is not a university subject)地理学面临一次“学术战争”。在这场斗争中，一方面地理学确实有着先天的不足，在与其他学科的较量中处于不利地位。如Ullman在60年代回忆：“我当时感到非常孤独，因为我们实在拿不出好的成绩来支持自身……没有作出什么，却要为它而战，实在太难了。”另一方面，更重要的原因是系内以Bowman为首的自然，和以Whittlesey为首的人文派的不合.Whittlesey的专业是历史地理，尤其对法国史颇有造诣，他一直企图让地理系逐渐走上以人文为主的路子，因此引起了地貌学出身的Bowman的反感。Bowman认为Whittlesey的人文地理是非科学的，纯描述性的,Whittlesey的政策只会把地理学“推向二级学科”。（和我们系【指当时的南大，转贴者注】何其相象！想想人文地理和海洋室的关系）结果在与外部的斗争中Bowman很少给予Whittlesey多少支持。四十年代的哈佛地理可说是一年不如一年了. 还有一个有趣的插曲：Whittlesey是个同性恋，而他利用自己的权势将与其关系暧昧的人调至哈佛，此举遭到了同行的反感，也成为许多反地理学人士的借口，直接导致了Whittlesey声望的下降。此时地理系唯一有威慑力的权威就是时任美国科学院院士的Bowman，但是由于对Whittlesey的厌恶，他一直没有站出来为自己的系说话。于是在悲剧的1948年，哈佛地理系的敌人以各种借口终于取的了胜利，校董会上宣布了地理系的解散。
　  哈佛地理的倒下立即在地理界引起了震动。要知道即使是在它最后的几年，哈佛地理系仍然是领域内的权威，从地理界的眼光来看，绝对是一流的强系。它的衰亡，说明了地理学面临着被科学界清扫出门的危机。正如简－戈特曼所说，“简直是一场可怕的冲击，美国地理学界永远也不可能完全从中恢复过来”。
　  这场危机至少反映了两点：一是哈特向派的先天不足，二是地理学内部的不和。但哈特向派此时仍然把持着领域内的要职，权威们顽固的坚持既有观点，新生的一代则陷如了悲观失望与迷惑之中。与此同时地理系在各大学的地位不断下降，本来就有很多人对地理学看不顺眼，许多学校大有效法哈佛之意，不少地理学者纷纷另谋出路。
　　第一个站出来攻击一手遮天的哈特向的是U. of Iowa的Schaefer教授。据说1953年哈特向曾到U. of Iowa讲授地理学思想，期间还和Schaefer友好的讨论过关于方法论的一些问题，但没想到几个月后Schaefer就在地理界的最高刊物Annals of American Association of Geographers上发表了著名的“Exceptionalism in Geography"一文，揭开了计量革命的帷幕。文中Schaefer尖锐的批判了哈特向”地理学的性质“一书，指出哈特向不加批判的继承了康德、赫特纳的描述传统，错误的认为地理学和历史一样，是一门与其他所有学科都有所不同的特殊科学，而特殊性就体现在描述不同区域的独特性。Schaefer称这种论调为地理学中的”特例主义“（Exceptionalism），它最终将导致地理学的非科学化。同时Schaefer将逻辑实证主义和科学方法论的概念引入了地理，认为地理学的本质和所有科学一样，在于寻找客观规律，而知识的建立必须从经验中来，在实践中验证。他提到了Christaller等的工作，认为意义非凡，将许多当时的权威如哈特向，Sauer等都批判了一翻，并影射他们的思想是地理学走向没落的罪魁祸首。戏剧性的是，Schaefer 在他的文章发表前突然去世，文章的最后修改是其好友，U.of Iowa 哲学系的实证主义哲学家Bergman带为完成的。
　  Schaefer的文章立即引起悍然大波。估计哈特向感到被人背后捅了一刀，所以特别气忿，立即致函包括Annals主编，编委的各大权威，认为Schaefer的文章是“对学科的犯罪”，必须“struggle against”。凭借他如日中天的声望，学术界立马一片打杀之声。据说Schaefer死后地理界的许多同僚都拒绝为之作悼词。
　  但地理在各大学面临灭亡的现实使得更多的人特别是年轻的一代从Schaefer偏激的文章中找到了希望，从而开始了哈特向阵营和以年轻一代地理学家为主的Schaefer阵营的大辨论。1953－1960期间哈特向发表了许多为他的The nature of geography辩论的文章，但最终计量派取得了胜利。原因很简单，计量化使的地理系在许多领域获得了新生，就好象地海系要改名为城资系一样。不可否认它让许多学校的地理系摆脱了如哈佛地理一般灭亡的命运，如Berkeley,Wisconsin, Washington等的地理系都得到了保留，而且一些新生的力量迅速壮大,如Ohio State，Penn State都是在此时崛起的。(如今,这些学校都成为了GIS的大牛校)（PSU,OSU是计量革命的两个基地，David Harvey在写成“地理学中的解释”一书前曾有 五年时间在PSU讲授计量方法，而OSU更是出版了Theoretical geography的journal专门宣传计量地理。现在叫Geographical Analysis，资料室有【指南大资料室，转贴者注】）。前权威们许多都在郁郁寡欢之中度过晚年。如Sauer（main figure of Berkeley School of cultural geography）最后承认他“in the wrong direction”。哈特向则比较顽固，但他利用权威对死后的Schaefer采取的不公正诋毁让人反感，最后遭到了新生派们无情的冷落。从后来计量学派的权威如邦奇（著有'理论地理学'一书，图书馆有中译本【指南大图书馆，转贴者注】）。与之的通信来看，信中充满了不屑与嘲讽。简直是悲剧。Schaefer最终被奉为计量革命的英雄。
　  甭管后来如何，从个人的观点来说，计量革命至少救了地理学一命。尽管当时在科学哲学中实证主义已经逐渐过时，但地理界的迫切需要仍使它宣起了一次革命，这或许可以解释为什么虽然早已有人提出相关理论，但计量革命却没有发生在更早的时期。而且从地理学的现实状况来看，人文地理比自然地理更加迫切需要学科的承认与尊重。自然地理学者一般都可以在其他领域找到落脚点，而且同样出色，而对于人文地理学者来说，不退化为一个二流学者的唯一方法便是守卫住一个强大的地理学科。这也是为什么地理史上所有的学科保卫战，人文地理学都不遗余力，而自然地理学者者反应相对冷淡：换个窝就是了。Schaefer认为地理学的精华在于系统化的人文地理，虽有失偏激，仍有些道理。否则地理学的确没有作为一个学科存在下去的价值。
　  计量革命的价值是不可低估的，尽管后来有这样那样的批评，尽管Harvey在其后的研究中推翻了自几“Explanation in geography”中的论点，但这本书至今仍然是美国地理系的必读教材。因为关键时候是它拯救了地理。尽管只是暂时的。
　  地理学一直都需要为自己的正名而斗争。80年代类似的危机再次出现，经济不景气导致各大学研究经费紧缩，地理系再次成为冲击对象。地理学迫切需要某些新的改变。而与上一次危机相反，这一次的改变是以一个崭新的地理系的崛起为标志，即加州大学圣巴巴拉分校。
故事先到此为止，欢迎大家补充！
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 补充：Whittlesey的落寞——哈佛的史料中，1956年11月的一篇文章Geography at Harvard，第一句说：世界著名的地理学家Whittlesey去世了，哈佛的地理课将没有人教了。Whittlesey的时代远去！

附4：http://www.gis.harvard.edu/tools（哈佛大学地理分析中心）

The Center for Geographic Analysis (CGA) supports geospatial research and teaching at Harvard University.
Working with faculty, students, and departments, CGA enables a diverse range of research projects involving geospatial analysis.  The Center provides geographic information systems (GIS) solutions ranging from general cartography and mapping, to spatial visualizations, webmaps, and web services.  By integrating spatial data with knowledge from multiple disciplines, CGA actively promotes the use of geographic information systems (GIS) in the Harvard curriculum.  The Center's mission is to strengthen GIS infrastructure and services across the University.
Come to CGA for:  
access to hardware, software and data
training programs and technical workshops
individual research project consulting
curriculum support for Harvard courses
monthly seminars and colloquia, and an annual conference on GIS topics
tools for GIS applications and platforms for online collaborative research

附5：http://www.3snews.net/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=show&catid=24&id=4421

                                                  Jack Dangermond : 孤独的GIS“教父”
                                               来源：计算机世界2008-02-14　　 （本报记者 许泳 ）
       39年来，他只干了一件事，就是让GIS从实验室里走出来，并成为了一个蒸蒸日上的产业; 他做的企业也许并不著名，但却是众多著名企业的重要合作伙伴，在全球GIS软件市场占有率持续第一。
　　Jack Dangermond，年近70的矍铄老人。
　　虽然刚下飞机两个小时，但站在记者面前的他，却丝毫看不出跨国旅途奔波的疲惫，倒是那种从内向外散发出的充沛精力，感染着他身边的每个人。
　　他创办的公司ESRI（美国环境系统研究所），名气可能远不及微软、Google、IBM等IT领域的大公司，然而在这些大公司的合作伙伴名单中，ESRI都占有重要位置, 它是全球最大的GIS（地理信息系统）技术和服务提供商。
　　                                                                         39年专注一件事
　　Jack在哈佛大学获得的是城市景观建筑的硕士学位，然而他却“不务正业”地创建了从事地理信息研究的ESRI公司，这源自他当年的一次激动，而这次激动引发的热情持续了近40年。
　　Jack第一次听哈佛大学一位教授讲如何用计算机帮助解决计量地理学的问题后，激动得几个晚上睡不着觉，他认为自己终于找到了一种用地理的思维、借助计算机去解决问题的方法。
　　“将近40年时间，我就干了这么一件事，就是让GIS从实验室里走出来，并成为了一个蒸蒸日上的产业。”Jack兴奋地说，“我很庆幸找到了让自己激动一生的事情，我现在的热情，和39年前创办这家公司时相比丝毫无减。”
　　Jack毕业后，放弃了在哈佛大学留校继续做科研的机会，与同在哈佛大学读书的女友一起，回到了土生土长的加州Redlands,向父母借了1000美元后就开始了创业历程，并一发而不可收拾了。
　　“我 至今还能想起创业之初的那间地下室，那时我们只是一家为客户分析地理信息方面的咨询公司。” 1981年，当他成功地推出第一个现代商业GIS系统ARC/INFO软件后，Jack带领ESRI向GIS软件开发公司转型，之后推出了一系列的产品。 当Jack发现自己的产品能够统计哮喘病患儿与空气质量以及高速公路排放的废气间的相关规律时，他非常兴奋。“我发现政府或企业中，越来越多的信息在和地 理发生关系，我们可以帮助大家从全局范围看问题。GIS的应用只受想像力的限制。”      ......
       在中国，GIS的发展也很让Jack吃惊。30年前，1978年1月，受中国科学院院士陈述彭之邀，Jack第一次访华，赠送给中国科学院一些源代码和几套 软件，Jack称它们为种子。“那时GIS在中国几乎为零。” Jack耸耸肩评价说。1984年，中国测绘科学研究院向ESRI公司购买了第一套商业软件; 上世纪80年代，中国科学院的4名研究人员还在ESRI得到一年的实习培训机会。1996年，Jack专程来华，同国家测绘总局签署协议，支持中国 1∶100万数字地图的项目计划。让Jack感到吃惊的是2006年底召开的那次中国用户大会，“会议上有67个针对不同行业的应用专题报告和48家合作 伙伴的应用展示，共有超过4000人参会。GIS在中国的发展速度，出乎我的意料。”

附5注：使Jack Dangermond“第一次听哈佛大学一位教授讲如何用计算机帮助解决计量地理学的问题后，激动得几个晚上睡不着觉”的很可能就是Howard T. Fisher教授。

附6：http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2008/06/winners-of-howard-t-fisher-prize-announced/

                                           Winners of Howard T. Fisher Prize announced
                                                                                 June 5, 2008
The Committee of the Howard T. Fisher Prize in Geographical Information Science has named four students winners of the award for the 2007-08 academic year. The Howard T. Fisher Prize for excellence in geographic information science was established in 1999 by the Harvard University GIS Users’ Group to promote and reward student work in this broad and potentially interdisciplinary area, from both undergraduate and graduate students at Harvard University.
In the undergraduate category, prizes were awarded to Anjali Lohani ’08, a candidate for a S.B. in environmental engineering, for the entry titled “Effects of Changes in Land Cover on Water Quality” and to Jeremy Tchou ’09 for his submission “Wind Energy in the United States: A Spatial-Economic Analysis of Wind Power.”
In the graduate category, prizes were awarded to Amos P.K. Tai, a first-year graduate student in the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS), for his entry titled “Regional Differences in the Effects of Climate Change on Air Quality in the United States with a Focus on Particulate Matter Concentrations” and to Miwa Matsuo, a candidate for doctor of design at the Graduate School of Design (GSD), for her research “Identifying Employment Centers and Modifiable Areal Unit Problem.”
Howard Taylor Fisher, a geographer and mathematical cartographer, founded the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis at GSD in 1965 where he developed the synegraphic mapping system. The initial endowment for the fund was provided by a generous contribution from Jack Dangermond M.L.A. ’69, president of Environmental Systems Research Institute Inc., a global leader in geographic information system modeling and mapping software and technology.
The 2008 Committee members were Stephen Ervin and Paul Cote of GSD; Yi Li, Harvard School of Public Health; Wendy Guan, Center for Geographic Analysis; Sumeeta Srinivasan, SEAS; and Lucia Lovison-Golob, Division of Continuing Education/Faculty of Arts and Sciences.

附7：http://www.examiner.com/article/interview-with-esri-s-jack-dangermond-landscape-architecture-and-gis-history

                                          Jack Dangermond接受访谈

               Interview with Esri's Jack Dangermond: Landscape Architecture and GIS history
                                                                       March 19, 2012 4:45 PM MST
 As the president and founder of Esri, the world’s technical and market-leading producer of geographic information systems (GIS) software, Jack Dangermond has guided that company’s growth from its founding as a research group in 1969. The recipient of no less than three collegiate degrees with emphases in landscape architecture (B.S. Cal State Poly, M. Arch. University of Minnesota, M.S. Harvard), Dangermond became heavily involved with GIS as a landscape architectural graduate student at Harvard in the 1960's.
After its early days as a research group focused on land planning, Esri began to focus more and more on the development of GIS software, eventually releasing its first commercially available software program, Arc/INFO in 1982. In 1999, Esri introduced a version of Arc for Windows operating systems that has since become commonplace in workplaces worldwide, influencing fields as diverse as geology, fire and safety, police enforcement, architecture and engineering, city planning, and many more.
 Can you briefly tell me a little about the early days of GIS, who was advocating it, who was using it in the field and how that's evolved over time?
 Yes. When it started, it had several birthplaces. One of them was at Harvard at their lab for computer graphics and spatial analysis. That was in the mid-60s. A professor there by the name of Howard Fisher founded this lab for computer graphics. And one of his early researchers was Carl Steinitz, who was a Ph.D. from MIT who got interested in computing and computer graphics and then took on the development of software graphics systems called synapse and GRID, and GRID was designed to do raster geoprocessing work and raster mapping.
 Carl's interest, initially, was in urban planning but he became a professor of landscape architecture and taught there for about 40 years. The lab for computer graphics pioneered computer mapping, initially with printer maps and later plotter maps and so on. But it also pioneered geographic analysis or spatial analysis, where you would do map overlays to do interpretive mapping. Carl's work largely involved urban simulation, urban plans, visual planning, and landscape planning with computers.
 Was Carl consciously incorporating [landscape architect] Ian McHarg's work, was there a connection between those two or were they completely separate?
 Carl certainly knew of Ian. And Ian would come to Harvard occasionally and give talks. If you take a step back, there were several big landscape planners. One of which was Phil Lewis who had an approach called corridor mapping, an approach that was out of Wisconsin and then Ian was out of Penn, he did the plastic overlay, thematic mapping approach. There was a guy down in Australia called Christian - two of them actually, Stewart and Christian - they did terrain mapping and an integrated approach for resource planning. There was a guy up in Canada named Angus Hill.
 Those guys sort of preceded computers. They did landscape analysis, landscape planning. Carl came at this from an urban planning and computer mapping perspective and certainly used Ian's approach of map overlay as one of the application areas.
 The second big home for GIS's origin was Roger Tomlinson in Canada. Roger created the first geographic information system in the world. It was called the Canadian Geographic Information System or CGIS... It was not focused on design. It was focused on inventory and interpretation of geography and was designed to put into a computer all the resource inventories for all of Canada. Things like soils, water, forests, ag lands and then to do interpretations of those for regional planning.
 The third origin wasn't really GIS. It was computerized mapping. That was David Dickmore over in the UK. And then there were probably a dozen other ones, people who did what I like to call computational geography.
 They were experimenting with the use of computers and maps and models and analytics. They started a kind of revolution in geography, sometimes referred to as quantitative geography. They invented projection systems with mathematical tools. They developed computerized ways to look at spatial interaction between populations. Bill Warns was an example of that.
 Another famous theoretician was Waldo Tobler, who is still alive, a very famous quantitative geographer. Duane Marble invented some of the first transportation models. Britt Harris, was also a transportation modeler.
 All these guys were working in pockets of isolation, once in awhile publishing a paper. But they all contributed and laid down a lot of the theory and foundation for what ultimately became geographic information systems.
 In the 60's I was at Harvard, I was influenced heavily by Carl, his whole quantitative approach, and by Howard Fisher. I moved back here [Redlands, Cal. - Ed.] in the late 60s and started ESRI which for the first ten years was focused entirely on GIS projects. We didn't call them that at the time, we were assisting some landscape architectural firms like EDAW and citing some transmission lines or in other cases we were doing project work.......

附7注：在访谈中Jack Dangermond提到：“In the 60's I was at Harvard, I was influenced heavily by Carl, his whole quantitative approach, and by Howard Fisher. "

附8：http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_53dbe24b0101be7j.html

                                              隋殿志教授谈地理学留学 

                                                                           (2012-09-07 05:49:56)
高燕定：那你觉得你们这个行业第一、第二是哪些学校？
隋殿志教授：上一次我们的排名是97年的National，那么他每十年排一次，最新的刚搞完，还没出来，那上次97年排的，我们这个专业排的最好，第一名NO.1是Pennsylvania State，第二是Minnesota。
主持人伊凡：就是说这种地理学排名比较靠前的反而没有像哈佛耶鲁这种名校。
隋殿志教授：这是因为美国私立大学里面没有地理系，哈佛大学的地理系在1948年由于他们校内政治还有哈佛大学地理系内部的原因而取消，美国地理学的创始人是William Morris Davis，即美国地理学之父戴维斯就是哈佛大学教授，美国地理就是他1904年创办的，哈佛大学的地理系、地学曾经是美国全国number one，一直到1948年哈佛大学地理系关门，关门后哈佛大学在美国大学高教系统里面影响了其他一系列Ivy League University，都把地理系关门了，包括耶鲁大学曾经也有一个非常好的地理系。哥伦比亚大学现在也没有了，但是地理教育这一块，是美国联邦法案支持的，作为公民素质教育的一部分，是一定要选修地理课的。
高燕定：中学生也要。
隋殿志教授：中学生也要修这个地理课的。所以公立大学里面，就是历史、地理是两大公民素质教育的主修的课程，所以现在一般美国的公立大学里面，都会有地理系的。

附9：http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2013/9/282453.shtm

                           “活北京”侯仁之：期待历史地理学后继有人
1932年，侯仁之如愿考入燕京大学历史系。走进燕园，眼前的景致让他永生难忘：“整个校园风景秀丽，光彩焕发，洋溢着蓬勃向上的朝气。”
四年后毕业时，侯仁之留校继续攻读硕士，并被历史系主任顾颉刚聘为系主任助理。翌年，卢沟桥事变爆发，积极宣传抗日的顾颉刚被迫南下。侯仁之转至历史学家洪煨莲门下继续学业。
洪煨莲早年留学美国，那时它已听说燕京大学买下了昔日的勺园作为校址。勺园是明代著名园林之一，洪煨莲回国任教于燕京大学，便开始了对勺园的研究，出版《勺园图考录》一书。
“老师所写关于校园的来历，引发了我的兴趣。”一有时间，侯仁之就要捧着书在勺园中与实地一一对照。
侯仁之因好奇心而起的考察活动，竟一发不可收拾。考察范围从勺园扩展至颐和园、西山，多次沿着圆明园的流水溯源而上，发现了被废弃的清代引水工程。不仅如此，他还经常跑去清华大学旁听地理课。
侯仁之的学术兴趣从历史转向地理，老师洪煨莲自然心知肚明。1938年春天的一个早上，洪煨莲让侯仁之去他家里一趟。
f侯仁之刚一落座，洪煨莲就突如其来大声对他说：“择校不如投师，投师要投名师。”
侯仁之有些一头雾水，正待发问，洪煨莲又接着说：“你应该到外国去专攻地理学。论西方大学，哈佛很有名，但是那里没有地理系。英国的利物浦大学，虽然论名气不如哈佛，但是那里有一位地理学的名师，可以把你带进到地理学的领域里去。”

附9注（陈昌春）：“论西方大学，哈佛很有名，但是那里没有地理系。”一说有点可疑，当时的哈佛地理系似乎乃如日中天。

附10：http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1956/11/26/geography-at-harvard-pthe-death-of/

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Geography at Harvard
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　NO WRITER ATTRIBUTED November 26, 1956

The death of world-respected Professor Derwent S. Whittlesey leaves Harvard without a faculty member to teach geography. His death may mark the end of geography at the University, for although Professor Whittlesey had announced that he would retire this June, the Administration reportedly had taken no steps to replace him.

This would be extremely unfortunate, for as Professor Whittlesey consistently advocated, geography has an important role in education as a whole, and at Harvard. A graduate committee organized in 1948 to examine the problem concluded that geographic training and advice is needed in nine other fields, including history, economics, and anthropology. It thought geography "The first essential basis of any area study," and many here are engaged in regional studies. Geography is an essential part of history, but while history's perspective is that of time, geography views societies in relation to the space they inhabit. This viewpoint has great value in a world of political blocs whose formation is greatly influenced by geographic factors.

The United States, especially, during wartime, desperately needs geographers. A good many of them take their undergraduate training in another field while becoming acquainted with geography, then specialize in graduate school. But due to the small number of courses now offered, the average Harvard undergraduate is unaware of the existence of geography as a serious academic concern. If geography is eliminated, few, if any, graduates from the College will enter the field.

The Harvard Geography Department, begun at the turn of the century, reached its peak of about eight faculty members in 1928 and continued at this level until 1948. In 1948, the geographers here, excepting Professor Whittlesey who held a permanent appointment, were told to look for work elsewhere. The reason given was: "Harvard cannot hope to have strong departments in everything."

In 1950, a faculty committee, which was initially dubious of geography's value, began a study of the place of geography in Harvard education. After examining the matter for a year, it suggested that a four chair department be established. The report was rejected by the University.

The refusal was unfortunate, for even if Harvard cannot afford to maintain a strong geography department, courses should be offered in the field. Every other major American university has a geography department. Many, including Yale and the Universities of Chicago and California, are expanding theirs. The Geographic Institute and its excellent map collection provide an admirable base upon which Harvard can rebuild.

At least two geographers, one to fill Professor Whittlesey's chair, should be brought here to teach. This inexpensive and mild expansion would facilitate study in other fields, contribute to the liberal education of a good number of students, and help ease the American need for geographers.